Introduction
The Maori Tohunga held a position of profound significance within traditional Maori society, serving not merely as religious figures but as expert practitioners across a wide spectrum of skills and knowledge. Understanding the role of the Tohunga is crucial to comprehending the intricate tapestry of Maori culture, spirituality, and social organization, as they were deeply involved in guiding and shaping the lives of their communities.
This report aims to provide a comprehensive and detailed examination of the Maori Tohunga, drawing upon historical texts, museum collections, and contemporary research to illuminate their multifaceted roles, spiritual importance, and enduring legacy.
Defining the Tohunga
The term "Tohunga" itself carries a rich and multifaceted meaning, fundamentally denoting an "expert practitioner" or "skilled person" adept in any art or skill, whether of a religious or secular nature. This broad definition encompassed a diverse array of individuals who held specialized knowledge and abilities vital to the community's wellbeing. These experts included not only priests and healers, but also navigators who guided waka (canoes) across vast oceans, carvers (tohunga whakairo) who imbued wood with ancestral stories, builders who constructed sacred spaces, teachers who transmitted vital knowledge, and advisors who offered guidance on complex matters. The term is closely linked to "tohu," which can mean to guide or direct, as well as a sign or manifestation, suggesting that the Tohunga were seen as both guides for their people and living embodiments of spiritual and ancestral knowledge. This broad and inclusive definition underscores a fundamental aspect of traditional Maori society: the deep integration of spiritual understanding with practical expertise, where both were essential for the community's holistic well-being.
Historical Roots and Training
The role of the Tohunga has deep historical roots, evident in the ancient legends and traditions passed down through generations. The origins of their knowledge and customs are often traced back to foundational figures like Tiki, considered the progenitor of the human race. Early accounts suggest that Tohunga played a crucial role in the migrations and navigation of the Maori across the vast Pacific Ocean, utilizing their profound understanding of the stars and astronomy to guide their voyages. Formal training for aspiring Tohunga took place within whare wānanga, or houses of learning, which served as repositories of sacred knowledge, traditions, and genealogies. These institutions underscore the deep-rooted and enduring importance of the Tohunga's role within Maori society from its very beginnings.
Tapu and Mana
Central to the Tohunga's identity and authority were the concepts of tapu and mana. Tohunga were considered possessors of supernatural powers and were held as sacred due to their inherent "tapu". Their "mana" was understood as a potent spiritual power, authority, prestige, influence, sanctity, and even luck. This imbued them with a unique ability to act as intermediaries between the human and spiritual realms, facilitating communication with deities (Atua) and ancestral spirits. Their understanding and control of these spiritual forces were essential for maintaining the balance and harmony of the community.
Roles and Responsibilities
The tasks and responsibilities of the Tohunga were exceptionally diverse, reflecting their integral role in nearly all facets of traditional Maori life. A primary function was the performance of karakia, which encompassed invocations, prayers, and chants used for a multitude of purposes. These chants were employed for healing physical and spiritual ailments, often utilizing herbs (rongoā) and massage (mirimiri) in conjunction with spiritual practices. They also played a vital role in advising leaders and guiding the community on a wide range of matters, including warfare strategies, agricultural practices, fishing techniques, and the construction of important structures. Their knowledge of navigation and celestial bodies was crucial for long voyages and understanding seasonal changes, and many were also highly skilled in crafts such as carving (whakairo), weaving (raranga), and tattooing (tā moko), creating objects imbued with cultural and spiritual significance. Furthermore, they were the keepers and transmitters of sacred knowledge, traditions, and genealogies (whakapapa), acting as historians and the living memory of their people. Their involvement in rituals for various life events, including birth, naming, marriage, and death, as well as their role in lifting or placing tapu, further underscores their pervasive influence.
Types and Specializations of Tohunga
Within the broader category of Tohunga existed various types and specializations, each with distinct functions and areas of expertise. The Tohunga Ahurewa represented the highest class of priest, deeply versed in sacred lore and rituals, and often serving as a primary mediator between the Atua and the tribe. Tohunga Matakite possessed the gift of foresight, acting as seers who could divine information about the future or distant events through dreams, omens, and spiritual connections. Expert carvers were known as Tohunga Whakairo, responsible for creating the intricate and symbolic carvings that adorned meeting houses, canoes, and other culturally significant objects, while Tohunga Raranga were skilled in the art of weaving intricate and symbolic textiles. Other specializations included Tohunga Tātai Arorangi (experts in reading stars), Tohunga Kōkōrangi (experts in astronomy), Tohunga Tārai Waka (expert canoe builders), Tohunga Wetereo (linguists), Tohunga Tā Moko (tattoo artists), Tohunga Mahi Toi (expert artists), Tohunga Tikanga Tangata (experts in human customs), Tohunga o Tumatauenga (war party chaplains), and the lower class of priest, Tohunga Kiato. There were also Tohunga Mākutu or Whaiwhaia, who specialized in the occult and casting spells, and Tohunga Rongoā, who were experts in traditional medicine and healing. This intricate system of specializations highlights the sophisticated nature of traditional Maori society, where expertise in diverse fields was recognized, cultivated, and essential for the community's overall functioning and prosperity.
The Tohunga and the Spiritual World
The Tohunga held a profound connection to the spiritual world, acting as vital intermediaries with deities and ancestral spirits. They possessed a deep understanding and ability to control the forces of tapu and mana, which were fundamental to the Maori worldview. Their role extended to guiding spirits of the deceased to the afterlife (Reinga), performing essential ceremonies for the dead. Maori mythology and legends are replete with the presence and actions of Tohunga, highlighting their fundamental role in the cultural narratives. They were the guardians of sacred wisdom and traditions, passed down through generations since the time of Te-Kore (the Nothing).
Tohunga in Rituals and Ceremonies
Tohunga were central figures in a wide array of rituals and ceremonies that marked significant aspects of life. Healing rituals, involving rongoā (traditional medicine), karakia, and mirimiri (massage), were a crucial part of their responsibilities. Protection rituals, including those performed for warriors before battle, were another significant aspect of their role. Initiation rites within whare wānanga marked the transition of individuals into roles of greater knowledge and responsibility. Death rites (tangihanga) were of paramount importance, with Tohunga playing a crucial role in guiding the spirit of the deceased and ensuring a proper farewell according to tradition. Furthermore, they were responsible for rituals involving the lifting or placing of tapu, managing the sacred restrictions and permissions that governed many aspects of Maori life.
Female Tohunga
While historical accounts often focus on male Tohunga, evidence suggests that female Tohunga also held significant roles and responsibilities within traditional Maori society. Though often overlooked in early scholarship, contemporary research is increasingly acknowledging their vital contributions. Female Tohunga specialized in various areas, including healing practices (rongoā), the art of weaving (raranga), composing waiata (songs), and holding expertise in whakapapa and the intricate rituals surrounding death (mahi tūpapaku). The concept of gender-specific tapu often influenced the distinct roles undertaken by male and female Tohunga within the community.
The Tohunga Suppression Act and its Impact
The enactment of the Tohunga Suppression Act in 1907 marked a significant and challenging period for the Maori Tohunga and their traditions. Driven by settler prejudices, a fear of practices perceived as witchcraft, and the perceived ineffectiveness of traditional Maori medicine in the face of European diseases, the Act aimed to suppress traditional healing practices that incorporated spiritual elements and replace them with Western medical approaches. This legislation had a profound impact, leading to a decline in the open practice of traditional customs, the suppression of oral traditions as many Tohunga hesitated to pass on their knowledge, and the driving of many practices underground to avoid prosecution. The Act was eventually repealed in 1962.
Resurgence and Contemporary Relevance
Despite the historical challenges and suppression, there has been a significant resurgence of interest in traditional Maori knowledge and practices in recent decades. Modern Tohunga continue to serve as experts in various fields, both traditional and contemporary, adapting their roles to the evolving needs of their communities. There are increasing efforts to integrate traditional Maori healing practices (Rongoā Māori) with modern healthcare systems, reflecting a growing appreciation for the holistic approach to well-being inherent in Maori traditions.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Maori Tohunga held a multifaceted and deeply respected position within traditional Maori society. They were far more than just priests or healers; they were the embodiment of expertise across a wide range of vital skills and knowledge, serving as spiritual guides, community leaders, historians, and skilled practitioners. Their connection to the spiritual world through tapu and mana, and their role as intermediaries with deities and ancestors, underscored their critical importance in maintaining the balance and well-being of their communities. While the Tohunga faced significant challenges and suppression during the colonial era, their legacy endures, and there is a growing revival of interest in their traditional knowledge and practices in contemporary New Zealand. The modern Tohunga continues to adapt and evolve, contributing their expertise to both traditional and modern contexts, ensuring the continuity and relevance of this vital aspect of Maori culture.